Transformational Learning: Wild Eyed Idealism with a Singular Focus

I (Vince) commented on both Darcey Mitschelen Group 1 and Carol Freeman Group 1 as well as Carolyn Group 4

Transformational Learning: Wild Eyed Idealism with a Singular Focus 

Vincent L. Stults

Ball State University 

Abstract

This literature review examines the key themes of transformational learning theory to understand the implications of this theoretical framework for application in the development of a learning program. It focuses on the significance, foundations,  and general themes found in transformational theory. It reviews the general themes of the singular focus, diverse vision, and proven teaching strategies of transformational theory.  Demonstrating how they reveal three prevailing ideas: experience is integral to learning,  "critical reflection" is essential to learning, individual development is both inherent in and an outcome of the process of learning, and the context of an individual's experience is integral to learning and can sometimes be a part of the transformational outcome itself. Followed by their implications for practice.

Introduction

For over 35 years the theoretical framework of Transformative Learning has been growing and evolving to expand our understanding of adult education. Even the meaning and essence of being an adult has been impacted by this perspective.  This brief literature review will barely scuff the surface of the significance, foundations, focus, divergent conceptions, and proven teaching strategies from this perspective in adult education.

Significance

The weight of this theoretical perspective cannot be underestimated.  The most popular theoretical construct associated with Adult Education has been the framework of Andragogy (Merriam,2012).  While this paper is not about adragogy, nor do I want reference to it to deter us from our course, I do believe it is essential to mention it by way of contrast,  providing an example that clearly demonstrates the significance seen by the rise of Transformational Theory within the discipline of adult education.

Taylor (2007 p.189) advises adult educators not to "rest on their laurels." Why? Because

"with the growing interest in the practice of fostering transformative learning, it seems to have replaced andragogy as the iconic educational philosophy of the field, offering adult educators proven teaching strategies based on substantive research framed within sound theoretical assumptions. In addition to the increasing number of empirical studies, there is also an emerging presence of divergent conceptions of transformative learning theory being engaged in the field." Taylor follows this quote by citing not just a few voices to support his claim.

Other voices seem to be raised from an even more emotive standpoint, or what one might call a Wild Eyed Idealism: "There is no underestimating the enormous contribution Mezirow's transformational theory has made in moving us out of the apolitical doldrums of the andragogical consensus and inspiring us to think deeply about how we understand adult learning and education" (Wilson and Kiely 2002. p. 3).

Foundations

"Mezirow (1978a) first applied the label transformation in his study of U.S. women returning to postsecondary study or the workplace after an extended time" (Kitchenham, 2008 p. 105). Although Mezirow (1978) is noted as the innovator of this theoretical framework, like other perspectives it didn't just appear. It is rooted in a few key philosophical concepts. Chief among them are Kuhn's paradigms (1962), Habermas's (1971, 1984) domains of learning, and Freire's (1970) “consciousness raising.” (Mezirow, 1978a, 1991a, 2000). As Wilson and Kiely (2002 p. 2) assert,"Mezirow's thinking provided a significant challenge to academic orthodoxy by making the central task of adult education the critique of assumptions through critically reflective learning."

It was in Mezirow’s (1978) study on women's reentry programs and from these philosophical themes that he formulated his ten phases (happening most often in sequential order) of perspective transformation in adult learning: 1) A disorienting dilemma, 2) Self-examination with feelings of guilt or shame, 3) Recognition that one’s discontent and the process of transformation are shared and that others have negotiated a similar change, 4) Exploration of options for new roles, relationships, and actions, 5) A critical assessment of assumptions, 6) Provisional trying of new roles, 7) Planning of a course of action, 8) Acquisition of knowledge and skills for implementing one’s plans, 9) Building of competence and self-confidence in new roles and relationships, and 10) A reintegration into one’s life on the basis of conditions dictated by one’s new perspective .

These origins are more than nice anecdotal jaunts into history, they help to provide an understand the foundational principals of this theory: "Transformative learning offers an explanation for change in meaning structures that evolves in two domains of learning based on the epistemology of Habermas' communicative theory." (Taylor and ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult 1998 p.12)

1) instrumental learning, which focuses on learning through task-oriented problem solving and determination of cause and effect relationships-learning to do, based on empirical-analytic discovery.

2) communicative learning, which is learning involved in understanding the meaning of what others "communicate concerning values, ideals, feelings, moral decisions, and such concepts as freedom, justice, love, labor, autonomy, commitment and democracy" (Mezirow 1991a, p. 8).

There are those (Collard and Law, 1989) who have criticized Mezirow for being selective in his use of Habermas's domains of learning,  since he "excluded" emancipatory learning in his earlier works regarding perspective change, but Mezirow (1989) stated that he saw it as working together with both communicative and instrumental learning.  As the theory has evolved through such critiques and through  empirical study, this point no longer seems to matter.

General Themes

A Singular Focus

Depending on the schools of thought within this tradition, the goals of this theoretical framework for learning vary from being "liberation or praxis," to that of uncovering the images of the psyche and guiding the learner to make peace or reconcile them within their self. More simply explained, transformative learning is about changing what we know, through critical examination of our experience. It is not merely learning new information, but instead experiencing radical change (Merriam, 2013). Though expressed as a singular focus, these two ideas of experience and critical reflection as being integral to learning, thread there way throughout the literature.

As Mezirow (1997) phrases it: "A defining condition of being human is that we have to understand the meaning of our experience. For some, any uncritically assimilated explanation by an authority figure will suffice. But in contemporary societies we must learn to make our own interpretations rather than act on the purposes, beliefs, judgments, and feelings of others. Facilitating such understanding is the cardinal goal of adult education. Transformative learning develops autonomous thinking" [italics mine] (Mezirow 1997, p. 5). 

This developmental component is key in understanding this as theory that is distinctively rooted in "adult" education.  From the introduction of this review, it was stated that this theory even touches upon the very meaning of being an adult: "Transformative learning offers a theory of learning that is uniquely adult, abstract and idealized, grounded in the nature of human communication. It is a theory that is partly developmental, but even more it is about where 'learning is understood as the process of using a prior interpretation to construe a new or revised interpretation of the meaning of one's experience in order to guide future action' (Mezirow 1996: 162)" (Taylor 2007, p. 173).

A Diverse Vision

There is too little space to highlight the accumulation of details scattered throughout the literature on this topic, rather I will paint in broad strokes and leave the details in the many pages of content referenced.

Arising out of theoretical critique and empirical study of the time, Taylor (1998 p. 27) established "seven means of contention:" Individual Change vs. Social Action; Decontextualized View of Learning; Universal Model of Adult Learning; Adult Development: Shift or Progression; An Emphasis on Rationality; Other Ways of Knowing; and Perspective Transformation: "The Model."

It is intriguing to see in the literature that what some chose to call a genuine critique of transformational theory, leading to an all out departure from the theoretical framework itself, others have chosen to simply classify as different approaches. Wilson and Kiely (2002) conclude that not all differences were able to be reconciled with the greater framework of Transformational Learning, "there are others who by both moving beyond transformational theory and invoking other critical traditions have addressed some of these "unresolved issues" in the promising movement to create a critical theory [italics mine] of adult learning and education" (Wilson and Kiely 2002, p. 3). However, the authors do not seem to have a unifying rubric, nor a clearly delineated stream of departure that can be clearly definable. In light of the greater relationship and distinctions between transformational theory and Critical theory, feminist theory, and postmodern perspectives, their strongest example of a departure rests in the work of  Welton and his "prolonged project to understand and promote "the centrality of emancipatory adult learning theory to social transformation and human freedom" (1995, pp. 1-2)" (Wilson and Kiely 2002, p. 4) Although we can cite Freire as already rooting this idea in transformational theory.

Suffice it to say, that almost every example from Wilson and Kiely (at least in kind) are also examined by Dirkx (1998) but are still left squarely in the transformational frame. Dirkx building upon Clark (1993),  saw at least four different "strands" of thought within the research and theory on transformative learning" that gave rise to many of the critiques from within the greater framework. (Dirkx 1998 p. 2): 1) Transformation as Consciousness-raising; 2)Transformation as Critical Reflection; 3)Transformation as Development; and 4)Transformation as Individuation.

Yet Dirkx still saw in each a core consistency, "All four of these strands underscore the importance of meaning in the process of learning and the role of adults in constructing and making that meaning within the learning experience." (Dirkx 1998, p. 9)

It seems that factors of time, perspective, and on-going empirical research have been able to contribute more to the scope, development, and advance of this theory, than to deliver any serious blow to undermine its basic assumptions, principals, and central focus. Though I should add that such a conclusion would lead Wilson and Kiely (2002 p. 4) to say this conclusion is "superficial" and the reason they wrote their review in the first place.

 Regarding the practice of transformational learning, "how these elements are engaged in the classroom is significantly shaped by the theoretical orientation of the educator (Taylor, 2008). (Mezirow and Taylor 2009, p. 3). Both Meziro and Taylor (2008) and Merriam (2012) have ordered these perspective very similarly. Yet Merriams may be more succinct. In transformative learning there are two main approaches: 1) Sociocultural Perspectives (social emancipatory, cultural-spiritual, race-centric, planetary); and 2) Individual Concerns (psychocritical, psychodevelopmental, psychoanalytic perspectives).  The first approach is represented by the work of Paulo Freire, Elizabeth Tisdell, Juanita Johnson-Bailey, and Mary Alfred,to name a few,  and the second is represented by Jack Mezirow, Laurent Daloz, John Dirkx, Robert Kegan, and Patricia Granton, among others. (Mezirow and Taylor 2009. p. 3)

Proven Teaching Strategies

Before looking at the practice of transformational learning through its core elements, it is good to consider where this diversity has taken transformational learning theory. As Mezirow and Taylor (2009) continue to focus on extending the practice of transformational learning, they seem to take all this in stride, continuing to shape and extend the application for transformative learning rather than to be mired down by these differences.  For Taylor (2007), this insight began unfolding with the first real conclusions coming from empirical studies mentioned in his 1998 review  (Taylor 2007, p. 174). 

The ability to embrace the ebb and flow of theory and practice is confirmed in Mezirow and Taylor 's introductory chapter (2009, p. 3): "It is important to note that this discussion of core elements is an evolving process, and the elements identified are a continual work of progress, particularly as more research comes forth. The identification of these elements emerge from a series of literature reviews of empirical studies on transformative learning completed over the past decade. Each of the elements is discussed in relationship to empirical literature about fostering transformative learning."

Core Practices (Elements)

All of this Leads to an understanding of the core practices of transformational learning theory, or as Taylor (2007) classifies them, core elements. These core practices originally included only three elements: individual experience, critical reflection, and dialogue (Taylor, 1998). While I could draw from several different sources throughout the past few decades to look at these core elements, I believe the most definitive  summary of present practice can be found in  Mezirow and Taylors (2008) book. These core elements are:

• Individual Experience - the starting point for exchange
• Promoting Critical Reflection - questioning the integrity of deeply held assumptions and beliefs based on prior experience
•  Dialogue - in contrast to everyday discussions, it is used "when we have reason to question the comprehensibility, truth, appropriateness (in relation to norms), or authenticity (in relation to feelings) of what is being asserted or to question the credibility of the person making the statement"
• Holistic Orientation - engaging in the affective and relational ways of knowing (beyond reason) Awareness of Context - understanding of the personal and sociocultural factors that play an influencing role... include the surroundings of the immediate learning event, the personal and professional situation of the learners at the time (their prior experience), and the background context that is shaping society... [as well as the] temporal constraints.
• Authentic Relationships  - establishing meaningful, genuine relationships with students)
• Learner-Centered Teaching - teacher is seen as facilitator who strives to balance power with learners through shared decision making, evaluation, and other learning (Mezirow and Taylor 2009, pp. 5-14)

Conclusion

Transformational learning holds within its history and development a wild eyed idealism about the capacity of adults to learn and grow through discovering within themselves, and from their  histories and context the raw materials for a fundamental change in who they are. This is no simple task and is fraught with challenges for the educator who must approach teaching in ways outside the norm, in a learner-centered approach. This challenge must be understood by those who would chose to employee the theoretical framework of transformational learning.   Additionally, the diversity of positions within this framework also present challenges. Challenges that force the practitioner(s) to examine their own lives in as much rigor as they hope for their students, so they too can discover how to navigate the nuances of this diverse field of practice.

A Singular Focus

These challenges, however, give way to a greater proposition, transformational learning is rooted squarely in the application of its principals. Unified in its diversity around praxis over orthodoxy, it has been able to maintain a singular focus to help adult learners understand the meaning of their experience, to make their "own interpretations rather than act on the purposes, beliefs, judgments, and feelings of others. Facilitating such understanding is the cardinal goal of adult education. Transformative learning develops autonomous thinking" (Mezirow 1997, p. 5)  

This singular focus can be simply expressed in two ideas: 1) Experience Is Integral To Learning; and 2) "Critical Reflection" Is Essential To Learning.

A Diverse Vision

The conclusion that can be derived from the diverse vision of theoretical conceptions from transformational learning theory means that as a theory, there is an ability to address the unique challenges of multiple settings, contexts, and individual circumstances and differences, with an appropriate approach, born out of its breadth of application as expressed in the "four strands" of Clark (as cited by Dirkx, 1998 p.2, 1993) and the two approaches put forward by (Merriam 2012) and Mezirow and Taylor 2009).

A Diverse Vision of transformational learning will be rooted in either or both of the following ideas: 1) Individual Development Is Both Inherent In and an Outcome of The Process of Learning; and 2) The Context of an Individuals Experience is Integral to Learning and can Sometimes Be a Part of the Transformational Outcome

Proven Teaching Strategies

The empirical research validates many core assumptions of this theory, providing a sound theoretical perspective from which to build programs rooted in substantive principals. And provide the foundation for a number of proven teaching strategies to be implemented in building a transformational learning opportunity. 

Its core elements have been shaped and developed by 35 years of critique, practice and empirical study.  From the ten phases of transformational learning established by Mezirow in the late 1970's to the core elements listed by he and Taylor in the early days of the 21st century (2008), there is great consistency. 

Proven Teaching Strategies are employed in the practice of Transformational Learning from seven Core Elements: Individual Experience, Promoting Critical Reflection, Dialogue, Holistic Orientation, Awareness of Context, Authentic Relationships, and Learner-Centered Teaching. These proven teaching strategies provide the primary means to engage in the idea that Critical Reflection Is Essential to Learning. 

Implications

The implications of these three themes is fairly straight forward. Though it may be sated in various ways, this singular focus means that any Adult Learning Program  employing Transformational Learning Theory should have a singular focus: to help adult learners understand the meaning of their experience, to make their "own interpretations rather than act on the purposes, beliefs, judgments, and feelings of others. Facilitating such understanding [italics mine] is the cardinal goal of adult education. Transformative learning develops autonomous thinking" (Mezirow 1997, p. 5) 

 Out of the diversity of transformational theoretical strands or approaches there is great degree of flexibly to address how to best from the transformative work using these diverse models . A program based in Transformational Learning Theory would need to employee practices representing the core elements of proven teaching strategies. A more definitive overview of the implications are locate in the final table.

Implications

	The main  themes/ideas in the literature (Check General Themes)	Application of the main ideas in practice (check Implications)
Idea 1	Theme: Singular Focus: Ideas: 1) Experience is Integral To Learning 2) "Critical Reflection" is Essential to Learning.	The kind of learning that must happen for transformation must go beyond mere informational learning. Therefore praxis is essential, and the central task of adult education becomes the facilitation of the learner in the act of critiquing their own assumptions through critically reflective learning. Without this core work it is not transformational learning
Idea 2	Theme: Diverse Vision (rooted in either one or both) Ideas: 1) Individual Development is Both Inherent in and an Outcome of the Process of Learning 2) The Context of an Individuals Experience is Integral to Learning and can Sometimes be a Part of the Transformational Outcome Itself	Find practitioners and theorists who can help you address the unique challenges, contexts, individual circumstances, and differences, with an appropriate approach. Work from one position or recombine them for your own application.
Idea 3	Proven Teaching Strategies Provide the Primary Means to Engage in the Idea That Critical Reflection is Essential to Learning.	A program based in Transformational Learning Theory should employee practices representing the core elements of: Individual Experience, Promoting Critical Reflection, Dialogue, Holistic Orientation, Awareness of Context, Authentic Relationships, and Learner-Centered Teaching, There is much room for innovation and integration of many different methodologies.

References

Brooks, A. (2001). Narrative Dimensions of Transformative Learning. Retrieved from http://proxy.bsu.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=ED476042&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Clark, M. C. (1993). Transformational Learning. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, (57), 47–56.

Collard, S., & Law, M. (1989). The limits of perspective transformation: A critique of Mezirow’s theory.

Dirkx, J. M. (1998). Transformative learning theory in the practice of adult education: An overview. PAACE Journal of Lifelong Learning, 7, 1–14.

Imel, S., & ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, C., and Vocational Education, Columbus, OH. (1998). Transformative Learning in Adulthood. ERIC Digest No. 200. Retrieved from http://proxy.bsu.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=ED423426&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Kitchenham, A. (2008). The Evolution of John Mezirow’s Transformative Learning Theory. Journal of Transformative Education, 6(2), 104–123. doi:10.1177/1541344608322678

Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2012). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide. John Wiley & Sons.

Mezirow, J. (1978). Perspective transformation. Adult Education Quarterly, 28(2), 100–110.

Mezirow, J. (1989). Transformation theory and social action: A response to Collard and Law. Adult Education Quarterly, 39(3), 169–175.

Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative Dimensions of Adult Learning. Retrieved from http://proxy.bsu.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=ED353469&site=ehost-live&scope=site