I (Vince)
commented on both Darcey Mitschelen
Group 1 and Carol Freeman Group 1 as well as Carolyn Group 4
Transformational Learning: Wild Eyed Idealism with a Singular
Focus
Vincent L.
Stults
Ball State
University
Abstract
This literature review examines the key themes of transformational learning
theory to understand the implications of this theoretical framework for
application in the development of a learning program. It focuses on the
significance, foundations, and general
themes found in transformational theory. It reviews the general themes of the
singular focus, diverse vision, and proven teaching strategies of
transformational theory. Demonstrating
how they reveal three prevailing ideas: experience is integral to learning, "critical reflection" is essential
to learning, individual development is both inherent in and an outcome of the
process of learning, and the context of an individual's experience is integral
to learning and can sometimes be a part of the transformational outcome itself. Followed by their implications for practice.
Introduction
For over 35 years the theoretical
framework of Transformative Learning has been growing and evolving to expand
our understanding of adult education. Even the meaning and essence of being an
adult has been impacted by this perspective.
This brief literature review will barely scuff the surface of the
significance, foundations, focus, divergent conceptions, and proven teaching
strategies from this perspective in adult education.
Significance
The weight of this theoretical perspective
cannot be underestimated. The most
popular theoretical construct associated with Adult Education has been the
framework of Andragogy (Merriam,2012). While this paper is not about adragogy, nor do I want reference to it to deter us from
our course, I do believe it is essential to mention it by way of contrast, providing an example that clearly
demonstrates the significance seen by the rise of Transformational Theory
within the discipline of adult education.
Taylor (2007 p.189) advises adult educators
not to "rest on their laurels." Why? Because
"with the growing interest in
the practice of fostering transformative learning, it seems to have replaced andragogy as the iconic educational philosophy of the
field, offering adult educators proven teaching strategies based on substantive
research framed within sound theoretical assumptions. In addition to the
increasing number of empirical studies, there is also an emerging presence of
divergent conceptions of transformative learning theory being engaged in the
field." Taylor follows this quote by citing not just a few voices to
support his claim.
Other voices seem to be raised from
an even more emotive standpoint, or what one might call a Wild Eyed Idealism:
"There is no underestimating the enormous contribution Mezirow's
transformational theory has made in moving us out of the apolitical doldrums of
the andragogical consensus and inspiring us to think
deeply about how we understand adult learning and education" (Wilson and Kiely 2002. p. 3).
Foundations
"Mezirow
(1978a) first applied the label transformation in his study of U.S. women
returning to postsecondary study or the workplace after an extended time"
(Kitchenham, 2008 p. 105). Although Mezirow (1978) is noted as the innovator of this theoretical
framework, like other perspectives it didn't just appear. It is rooted in a few
key philosophical concepts. Chief among them are Kuhn's paradigms (1962), Habermas's
(1971, 1984) domains of learning, and
Freire's (1970) “consciousness
raising.” (Mezirow, 1978a, 1991a, 2000). As
Wilson and Kiely (2002 p. 2) assert,"Mezirow's
thinking provided a significant challenge to academic orthodoxy by making the
central task of adult education the critique of assumptions through critically
reflective learning."
It was in Mezirow’s
(1978) study on women's reentry programs and from these philosophical themes
that he formulated his ten phases (happening most often in sequential order) of
perspective transformation in adult
learning: 1) A disorienting dilemma, 2) Self-examination with feelings of guilt
or shame, 3) Recognition that one’s discontent and the process of
transformation are shared and that others have negotiated a similar change, 4)
Exploration of options for new roles, relationships, and actions, 5) A critical
assessment of assumptions, 6) Provisional trying of new roles, 7) Planning of a
course of action, 8) Acquisition of knowledge and skills for implementing one’s
plans, 9) Building of competence and self-confidence in new roles and
relationships, and 10) A reintegration into one’s life on the basis of
conditions dictated by one’s new perspective .
These origins are more than nice
anecdotal jaunts into history, they help to provide an understand the
foundational principals of this theory: "Transformative learning offers an
explanation for change in meaning structures that evolves in two domains of
learning based on the epistemology of Habermas'
communicative theory." (Taylor and ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult 1998 p.12)
1) instrumental learning, which
focuses on learning through task-oriented problem solving and determination of
cause and effect relationships-learning to do, based on empirical-analytic
discovery.
2) communicative learning, which is
learning involved in understanding the meaning of what others "communicate
concerning values, ideals, feelings, moral decisions, and such concepts as
freedom, justice, love, labor, autonomy, commitment and democracy" (Mezirow 1991a, p. 8).
There are those (Collard and Law,
1989) who have criticized Mezirow for being selective
in his use of Habermas's domains of learning, since he "excluded" emancipatory learning in his earlier works regarding
perspective change, but Mezirow (1989) stated that he
saw it as working together with both communicative and instrumental learning. As the theory has evolved through such
critiques and through empirical study,
this point no longer seems to matter.
General Themes
A
Singular Focus
Depending on the schools of thought
within this tradition, the goals of this theoretical framework for learning
vary from being "liberation or praxis," to that of uncovering the
images of the psyche and guiding the learner to make peace or reconcile them
within their self. More simply explained, transformative learning is about changing
what we know, through critical
examination of our experience. It
is not merely learning new information, but instead experiencing radical change (Merriam, 2013). Though expressed as a
singular focus, these two ideas of experience and critical reflection as being
integral to learning, thread there way throughout the literature.
As Mezirow
(1997) phrases it: "A defining condition of being human is that we have to
understand the meaning of our experience. For some, any uncritically assimilated explanation by
an authority figure will suffice. But in contemporary societies we must learn
to make our own interpretations
rather than act on the purposes, beliefs, judgments, and feelings of others.
Facilitating such understanding is the cardinal goal of adult education.
Transformative learning develops autonomous thinking" [italics mine] (Mezirow 1997, p. 5).
This developmental component is key
in understanding this as theory that is distinctively rooted in
"adult" education. From the
introduction of this review, it was stated that this theory even touches upon
the very meaning of being an adult: "Transformative learning offers a
theory of learning that is uniquely adult, abstract and idealized, grounded in
the nature of human communication. It is a theory that is partly developmental,
but even more it is about where 'learning is understood as the process of using
a prior interpretation to construe a new or revised interpretation of the
meaning of one's experience in order to guide future action' (Mezirow 1996: 162)" (Taylor 2007, p. 173).
A Diverse Vision
There is too little space to
highlight the accumulation of details scattered throughout the literature on
this topic, rather I will paint in broad strokes and leave the details in the
many pages of content referenced.
Arising out of theoretical critique
and empirical study of the time, Taylor (1998 p. 27) established "seven
means of contention:" Individual Change vs. Social Action; Decontextualized View of Learning; Universal Model of Adult
Learning; Adult Development: Shift or Progression; An Emphasis on Rationality;
Other Ways of Knowing; and Perspective Transformation: "The Model."
It is intriguing to see in the
literature that what some chose to call a genuine critique of transformational
theory, leading to an all out departure from the theoretical framework itself,
others have chosen to simply classify as different approaches. Wilson and Kiely (2002) conclude that not all differences were able to
be reconciled with the greater framework of Transformational Learning,
"there are others who by both moving beyond transformational theory and
invoking other critical traditions
have addressed some of these "unresolved issues" in the promising
movement to create a critical theory
[italics mine] of adult learning and education" (Wilson and Kiely 2002, p. 3). However, the authors do not seem to have
a unifying rubric, nor a clearly delineated stream of departure that can be
clearly definable. In light of the greater relationship and distinctions
between transformational theory and Critical theory, feminist theory, and
postmodern perspectives, their strongest example of a departure rests in the
work of Welton
and his "prolonged project to understand and promote "the centrality
of emancipatory adult learning theory to social transformation
and human freedom" (1995, pp. 1-2)" (Wilson and Kiely
2002, p. 4) Although we can cite Freire as already
rooting this idea in transformational theory.
Suffice it to say, that almost every
example from Wilson and Kiely (at least in kind) are
also examined by Dirkx (1998) but are still left
squarely in the transformational frame. Dirkx
building upon Clark (1993), saw at least
four different "strands" of thought within the research and theory on
transformative learning" that gave rise to many of the critiques from
within the greater framework. (Dirkx 1998 p. 2): 1)
Transformation as Consciousness-raising; 2)Transformation as Critical
Reflection; 3)Transformation as Development; and 4)Transformation as
Individuation.
Yet Dirkx
still saw in each a core consistency, "All four of these strands
underscore the importance of meaning in the process of learning and the role of
adults in constructing and making that meaning within the learning
experience." (Dirkx 1998, p. 9)
It seems that factors of time,
perspective, and on-going empirical research have been able to contribute more
to the scope, development, and advance of this theory, than to deliver any
serious blow to undermine its basic assumptions, principals, and central focus.
Though I should add that such a conclusion would lead Wilson and Kiely (2002 p. 4) to say this conclusion is
"superficial" and the reason they wrote their review in the first
place.
Regarding the practice of transformational
learning, "how these elements are engaged in the classroom is
significantly shaped by the theoretical orientation of the educator (Taylor,
2008). (Mezirow and Taylor 2009, p. 3). Both Meziro and Taylor (2008) and Merriam (2012) have ordered
these perspective very similarly. Yet Merriams may be
more succinct. In transformative learning there are two main approaches: 1) Sociocultural Perspectives (social emancipatory,
cultural-spiritual, race-centric, planetary); and 2) Individual Concerns (psychocritical, psychodevelopmental,
psychoanalytic perspectives). The first
approach is represented by the work of Paulo Freire,
Elizabeth Tisdell, Juanita Johnson-Bailey, and Mary Alfred,to name a few,
and the second is represented by Jack Mezirow,
Laurent Daloz, John Dirkx,
Robert Kegan, and Patricia Granton,
among others. (Mezirow and Taylor 2009. p. 3)
Proven Teaching Strategies
Before looking at the practice of
transformational learning through its core elements, it is good to consider
where this diversity has taken transformational learning theory. As Mezirow and Taylor (2009) continue to focus on extending
the practice of transformational learning, they seem to take all this in
stride, continuing to shape and extend the application for transformative
learning rather than to be mired down by these differences. For Taylor (2007), this insight began
unfolding with the first real conclusions coming from empirical studies
mentioned in his 1998 review (Taylor
2007, p. 174).
The ability to embrace the ebb and
flow of theory and practice is confirmed in Mezirow and
Taylor 's introductory chapter (2009, p. 3): "It is important to note that
this discussion of core elements is an evolving process, and the elements
identified are a continual work of progress, particularly as more research
comes forth. The identification of these elements emerge from a series of
literature reviews of empirical studies on transformative learning completed
over the past decade. Each of the elements is discussed in relationship to
empirical literature about fostering transformative learning."
Core Practices (Elements)
All of this Leads to an
understanding of the core practices of transformational learning theory, or as
Taylor (2007) classifies them, core elements. These core practices originally
included only three elements: individual experience, critical reflection, and
dialogue (Taylor, 1998). While I could draw from several different sources
throughout the past few decades to look at these core elements, I believe the
most definitive summary of present
practice can be found in Mezirow and Taylors (2008) book. These core elements are:
- Individual Experience - the starting
point for exchange
- Promoting Critical Reflection - questioning the integrity of deeply
held assumptions and beliefs based on prior experience
- Dialogue - in contrast to everyday discussions, it is used "when we
have reason to question the comprehensibility, truth, appropriateness (in
relation to norms), or authenticity (in relation to feelings) of what is being
asserted or to question the credibility of the person making the statement"
- Holistic Orientation - engaging in the affective and
relational ways of knowing (beyond reason)
Awareness of Context -
understanding of the personal and sociocultural factors that play an
influencing role... include the surroundings of the immediate learning event,
the personal and professional situation of the learners at the time (their
prior experience), and the background context that is shaping society... [as
well as the] temporal constraints.
- Authentic Relationships -
establishing meaningful, genuine relationships with students)
- Learner-Centered Teaching - teacher
is seen as facilitator who strives to balance power with learners through
shared decision making, evaluation, and other learning (Mezirow and Taylor 2009, pp. 5-14)
Conclusion
Transformational learning holds
within its history and development a wild eyed idealism about the capacity of
adults to learn and grow through discovering within themselves, and from
their histories and context the raw
materials for a fundamental change in who they are. This is no simple task and
is fraught with challenges for the educator who must approach teaching in ways
outside the norm, in a learner-centered approach. This challenge must be
understood by those who would chose to employee the theoretical framework of
transformational learning.
Additionally, the diversity of positions within this framework also
present challenges. Challenges that force the practitioner(s) to examine their
own lives in as much rigor as they hope for their students, so they too can
discover how to navigate the nuances of this diverse field of practice.
A Singular Focus
These challenges, however, give way
to a greater proposition, transformational learning is rooted squarely in the
application of its principals. Unified in its diversity around praxis over
orthodoxy, it has been able to maintain a singular
focus to help adult learners understand the meaning of their experience, to
make their "own interpretations rather than act on the purposes, beliefs,
judgments, and feelings of others. Facilitating such understanding is the
cardinal goal of adult education. Transformative learning develops autonomous
thinking" (Mezirow 1997, p. 5)
This singular focus can be simply
expressed in two ideas: 1) Experience Is Integral To Learning; and 2)
"Critical Reflection" Is Essential To Learning.
A Diverse Vision
The conclusion that can be derived
from the diverse vision of
theoretical conceptions from transformational learning theory means that as a
theory, there is an ability to address the unique challenges of multiple
settings, contexts, and individual circumstances and differences, with an
appropriate approach, born out of its breadth of application as expressed in
the "four strands" of Clark (as cited by Dirkx, 1998 p.2, 1993) and
the two approaches put forward by (Merriam 2012) and Mezirow and Taylor 2009).
A Diverse Vision of transformational
learning will be rooted in either or both of the following ideas: 1) Individual
Development Is Both Inherent In and an Outcome of The Process of Learning; and
2) The Context of an Individuals Experience is Integral to Learning and can
Sometimes Be a Part of the Transformational Outcome
Proven Teaching Strategies
The empirical research validates
many core assumptions of this theory, providing a sound theoretical perspective
from which to build programs rooted in substantive principals. And provide the
foundation for a number of proven
teaching strategies to be implemented in building a transformational
learning opportunity.
Its core elements have been shaped and developed by 35 years of
critique, practice and empirical study.
From the ten phases of transformational learning established by Mezirow
in the late 1970's to the core elements listed by he and Taylor in the early
days of the 21st century (2008), there is great consistency.
Proven Teaching Strategies are
employed in the practice of Transformational Learning from seven Core Elements:
Individual Experience, Promoting Critical Reflection, Dialogue, Holistic
Orientation, Awareness of Context, Authentic Relationships, and
Learner-Centered Teaching. These proven teaching strategies provide the primary
means to engage in the idea that Critical Reflection Is Essential to Learning.
Implications
The implications of these three
themes is fairly straight forward. Though it may be sated in various ways, this
singular focus means that any Adult Learning Program employing Transformational Learning Theory
should have a singular focus: to help adult learners understand the meaning of
their experience, to make their "own interpretations rather than act on
the purposes, beliefs, judgments, and feelings of others. Facilitating such understanding [italics mine] is the
cardinal goal of adult education. Transformative learning develops autonomous
thinking" (Mezirow 1997, p. 5)
Out of the diversity of transformational
theoretical strands or approaches there is great degree of flexibly to address
how to best from the transformative work using these diverse models . A program
based in Transformational Learning Theory would need to employee practices
representing the core elements of proven teaching strategies. A more definitive
overview of the implications are locate in the final table.
Implications
|
The main
themes/ideas in the literature
(Check General Themes)
|
Application of the main ideas in practice
(check Implications)
|
Idea 1
|
Theme: Singular Focus:
Ideas:
1) Experience is Integral To
Learning
2) "Critical
Reflection" is Essential to Learning.
|
The kind of learning that must happen for transformation
must go beyond mere informational learning.
Therefore praxis is essential, and the central task
of adult education becomes the facilitation of the learner in the act of
critiquing their own assumptions through critically reflective learning.
Without this core work it is
not transformational learning
|
Idea 2
|
Theme: Diverse Vision (rooted in either one or both)
Ideas: 1) Individual
Development is Both Inherent in and an Outcome of the Process of Learning
2) The Context of an
Individuals Experience is Integral to Learning and can Sometimes be a Part of
the Transformational Outcome Itself
|
Find practitioners and
theorists who can help you address the unique challenges, contexts,
individual circumstances, and differences, with an appropriate approach.
Work from one position or
recombine them for your own application.
|
Idea 3
|
Proven Teaching Strategies
Provide the Primary Means to Engage in the Idea That Critical Reflection is
Essential to Learning.
|
A program based in
Transformational Learning Theory should employee practices representing the
core elements of: Individual
Experience, Promoting Critical Reflection, Dialogue, Holistic Orientation,
Awareness of Context, Authentic Relationships, and Learner-Centered Teaching,
There is much room for
innovation and integration of many different methodologies.
|
References
Brooks, A. (2001). Narrative Dimensions of Transformative
Learning. Retrieved from
http://proxy.bsu.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=ED476042&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Clark, M. C. (1993). Transformational Learning. New
Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, (57), 47–56.
Collard, S., & Law, M. (1989). The limits of perspective
transformation: A critique of Mezirow’s theory.
Dirkx, J. M. (1998). Transformative learning theory in the
practice of adult education: An overview. PAACE Journal of Lifelong Learning,
7, 1–14.
Imel, S., & ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, C., and
Vocational Education, Columbus, OH. (1998). Transformative Learning in
Adulthood. ERIC Digest No. 200. Retrieved from
http://proxy.bsu.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=ED423426&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Kitchenham, A. (2008). The Evolution of John Mezirow’s
Transformative Learning Theory. Journal of Transformative Education, 6(2),
104–123. doi:10.1177/1541344608322678
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M.
(2012). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide. John Wiley &
Sons.
Mezirow, J. (1978). Perspective transformation. Adult
Education Quarterly, 28(2), 100–110.
Mezirow, J. (1989). Transformation theory and social action:
A response to Collard and Law. Adult Education Quarterly, 39(3),
169–175.
Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative Dimensions of Adult
Learning. Retrieved from
http://proxy.bsu.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=ED353469&site=ehost-live&scope=site
After finishing our first project together, we are getting a
feel of the best way to work together and are beginning to have a feel for what
our joint focus will be. Over the next week and a half (by October 8th) we will
finalize the program focus and goals and map out assignments for the remaining
work. We will also add in conference call
style check points other than using only email to add better communication to better
meet developmental deadlines.
As we were selecting our topics for this class, I wrote: "Since I am new
to the academic study of adult education, and educational theory in general,
the impact of transformational theory seems to be a deep well and full of
useful insight." As we begin our group blogs, and start the first steps
for starting our projects, I am finding that the water in this well is most certainly
deep. I have found it challenging to know where to begin even finding a program
to evaluate, let alone designing one based on this theoretical framework. Even
though there are a lot of commonalities among those who claim, or who are put in
the category of transformational learning, there is also a great diversity found
in methodology, focus, and in approach as to what the nature of critical
reflection is all about. So not only is there a challenge in mapping out the
timeline, tasks, and responsibilities necessary for the projects, it seems like
I am one among many in that dark room with the elephant, trying to describe
what it is we are examining, but finding I am only able to describe it with the
parts that I can feel right in front of me. With a little more light and
some dialog, I know we continue to press forward, and it seems that we are beginning
to make headway. So the next step, after submitting our paper which reviews a couple
of transformational learning programs, is to narrow our focus, and solidify what
type of program we would like to design.
